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Political Science → John Locke’s Philosophy
John Locke (1632-1704)
Twenty-five years reign of Charles II was followed by short rule of James II. He had no son. Next expected ruler was his daughter Mary of Orange but not until a son was born to him. It was annoying for Protestants who did want to see another Catholic as ruler. They called on the William – husband of Mary. He invaded England and captured power in bloodless revolution of 1688. Locke was given place of Commissioner of Appeals in the Court. Later, he also served as Commissioner of Trade. He resigned from public life in 1700.
Two Treatise of Government
It was the most famous woman work of Locke. In the first treatise, Locke refuted the false political principles of absolutism given by Sir Robert Filmer – purporting in his Patriarcha the position that there is no state of nature as man is born in society organised by command. It is believed that he wrote first treatise after the second seeing the influence of Patriarcha. Locke was successful in contending Filmer’s spiritual evidence but unsuccessful in meeting the real issue – the patriarchal idea itself. The second treatise deals with original extent and end of civil government.
Nature of Man and State of Nature
Locke discusses the origin and proper use of political power. He begins with state of nature that had two characteristics: state of perfect freedom and State of equality of inhabitants. He agrees with Hobbes that men are born equal in terms of rights but not in terms of capacity. But, he immediately differs by saying that state of nature is governed by law of nature. Each person has responsibility if enforcing this natural law, judge their conflicts and exercise authority. Men are reasonable to understand this but at the same time they are little or more selfish.
State of nature has three defects: lack of an established law, indifferent judge, no enforcing executive. Conscience reflects fault of individual judgement. It is unreliable. But these inconveniences do not make state of nature intolerable contrary to what Hobbes suggested. Yet, improvement was required. This improvement was to come from the organisation of a civil society and creation of instruments that will correct the deficiencies.
A compact was made in which free and equal men consented to surrender their natural liberty to interpret, judge and enforce law of nature. Those who didn’t enter in contract could live in state of nature. Even every born child will be in compact unless he decides otherwise at the age of maturity. Here Locke also clarifies that single ruler was suitable for the earliest simpler societies. Now decision of majority shall be considered. They need to create multiple instruments to deal with the problem. They created government which is based on relationship of trust between the rulers and the governed.
Government is responsible to people and can’t be greater than them. There must be law making body in government – the supreme power in commonwealth. Limitations on the authority of the supreme are: now arbitrary exercise, towards good of society, no deprivation from property, no sharing of law-making power. It is not superior to people but only in relation with other instruments.
Executive must be set up to execute law. It shall be separated in power from legislation. In Locke’s separation of power, instruments are separated but not equal in power. There shall be federative to conduct foreign affairs and military policy. This power is also lodged in executive.
Right of Revolution
Locke contends that people have right to remove the government by force if the latter violates trust. People will determine the violation. Sovereignty rests in people. They exercise it in elections or revolution.
Right of Property
In state of nature men had common property. Lives, liberties and estates are three fundamental rights which become legal right after rise of state. Now property should be part of Man. It should be owned as much as one can cultivate and not to the prejudice of others. In this way he gives his Labor Theory – man has right to his own body and to labor with it. When he applies labour to the goods of nature, they become part of him. He expands his labour theory of private property into labour theory of value. The greater the labour expanded on raw materials; the greater valuable they are. Government protects private property but also does not let it be used against public interests.
Letter of Toleration – attitude in religious beliefs shall be tolerant. Religious diversity should neither destroy communal harmony nor interfere with government. Churches shall be voluntary organisations not seeking any support from government to get membership. Person can’t be compelled to follow certain faith. Church and government shall not give varying views of morality to create uncomfortable dilemma. Locke believes in religious freedom.